The Shifting Focus of Discipleship Within Church History
“A fundamental scriptural image for Christian spirituality is discipleship. Indeed, during the later history of Christian spirituality across two millennia, the concept of “discipleship” became virtually interchangeable with leading a Christian life.”[1] The call to discipleship has had many different meanings and applications in the Christian Church throughout the centuries. Jesus focused on twelve men, the early church focused on Bishops, the medieval church focused on tradition, the Reformers focused on Scripture, the Great Awakening focused on conversion, the 20th century church focused on programs, and today’s church is refocusing. This paper will track the Christian church’s shifting focus of discipleship throughout history. Then it will examine some of the ideas and practices of discipleship that are in use today.
Jesus spoke to groups of thousands, but he shared his life and greater intimacy with just twelve men. Today, many refer to these men simply as the Disciples. Their very identity defined by their relationship to Christ. “They accompanied Christ on his journeys, saw his wonderful works, heard his discourses and addresses to the people, and made inquiries of him on religious matters.”[2] He specifically called these twelve[3] men and even turned away some who sought to join him. “And when He got into the boat, he who had been demon-possessed begged Him that he might be with Him. However, Jesus did not permit him, but said to him, "Go home to your friends, and tell them what great things the Lord has done for you, and how He has had compassion on you."[4] Jesus had special plans for these men and being one of his twelve was an exclusive privilege.
Jesus was not content to leave these men as purely spectators or followers. Therefore, he gave them the title of “Apostle,”[5] and sent them out two by two, commanding them to preach, heal, and cast out demons.[6] Even after this assignment, he continued to invest much of his time and energy into these twelve men. Christ shows the intimacy he shared with them and the importance of their role in his ministry, in how he chose to spend his last moments on earth, both before and after his death. He chose to spend the last night before his crucifixion dining with and instructing his chosen twelve. Then, after his resurrection, Jesus continued to instruct them until he ascended into heaven; telling them to, "Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."[7]
After Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension, the Apostles used personal discipleship and large group preaching to form the early church.” The early church served under the Apostles and looked to them for teaching, leadership, and provision. These men were no longer just the disciples; they had become the teachers and leaders. Through their writing and preaching, they were able to record the words and actions of Jesus’ earthly ministry and teach large amounts of people, (much like Christ taught the multitudes). To continue the more intimate form of discipleship that Christ had established, some of these leaders personally, taught, trained, and appointed other leaders, teachers, and helpers. In this same manner, these new disciples were encouraged to raise up other believers to continue the pattern of discipleship.
The Apostles followed Jesus’ system of discipleship, which consisted of; investing and empowering a few[8]; ministering in groups of two; (Peter and John, Paul and Silas, etc…) and teaching to the multitudes. Since Christianity remained a relatively obscure sect to the rest of the world, the smaller churches and communities that formed within the church allowed this type of personal discipleship and large group instruction to thrive in the midst of persecution.
After the deaths of the Apostles, some of the discipleship needs were met through Christian thinkers such as Augustine, Eusebius, Jerome, and Ambrose, as well as creeds such as the Nicene and Athanasian creeds. However, pagan and political influences began to shape the structure of the church.
During the period between 100 and 313, the church was forced to give consideration to how it could best meet the external persecution from the Roman state and the internal problem of heretical teaching and consequent schism. It sought to close ranks by the development of the canon of the New Testament, which gave it an authoritative Book for faith and practice; by the creation of a creed, which gave it an authoritative statement belief; and by obedience to the monarchical bishops.[9]
This eventually formed a type of hierarchy in which the church substituted personal discipleship for devotion to a specific leader. At first, these “bishops” were disciples of the Apostles and served as overseers of a group of churches in a city or territory.[10] “Emphasis on the monarchical bishop who, it was believed, derived his authority by apostolic succession, led many to think of him as a center of unity, the depository of truth, and the dispenser of the means of grace of God through the sacraments… it enhanced the superior sanctity of the bishop as compared with the rank and file of the ordinary church members.”[11] Rather than pursuing personal discipleship through investing in each other, the early church grew more devoted to their bishop.
With
“Pure religious enthusiasm began to wane, old; ideals received a new form, and the self-reliance and responsibility of individuals grew weaker. The ' priests and kings of God 'began to clamor for priests, and to come to terms with the kings of the earth. Those who once had prided themselves on being filled with the Spirit, no longer traced that Spirit so actively in themselves, and sought to recognize it in symbols of faith, in holy books, in mysteries, and in forms of Church order.”[13]
There were pockets of Christians who rejected the medieval form of discipleship in favor of monasticism. Though it is “characterized by withdrawal from the world, meditation, self-abnegation, and some degree of asceticism,”[14] monasticism has “always developed into ordered communities governed by an established rule of life,”[15] and communal living. Christian monasticism originated in the fourth century and re-emerged in the tenth century, the thirteenth century, and finally as part of the Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth century.[16] Eventually, monasteries became education and training centers for clergy. Therefore, the only people who would receive any type of discipleship outside of mass were those studying to be priests. Monasticism would usually influence local and temporary reforms, but it was not until the 1500’s that it would influence any major change. In fact, Martin Luther was an Augustinian monk.
During the Reformation, God awakened the gospel of pure, costly grace through God’s servant Martin Luther by leading him through the monastery…God showed him through scripture that discipleship is not the meritorious achievement of individuals, but a divine commandment to all Christians.[17]
Martin Luther ushered in the Protestant Reformation in 1517[18] and changed the way people viewed church and discipleship. Luther made use of the printing press, a vernacular bible translation, music, and catechisms as discipleship tools. Catechisms are instructions on religion and statements of faith, “usually written in the form of questions and answers… they were used especially for the instruction of converts and children. Catechisms were popular in the later Middle Ages and assumed even greater significance in the Reformation through Martin Luther's emphasis on the religious education of children.”[19] The emphasis on the priesthood of the believer and scriptural sufficiency encouraged Christians to grow in their faith and knowledge of Christ and the scriptures. Discipleship made its way beyond the monastery walls and into the hearts of the laity. Individual leaders were again raising up other leaders, and other religious groups formed independently of the medieval church.
“The Anglicans and Lutherans completely disavowed the hierarchical sacramental system of the church,”[20] yet they maintained most of the same practices of the medieval church. “The Reformed and Presbyterian churches…disavowed all practices that could not be proved to be in accordance with the New Testament.”[21] Most reformers believed in state run churches. Therefore, discipleship came through both the government and church. In 1541, John Calvin had the Ecclesiastical Ordinances enacted in
“The Anabaptists made the most radical break of all the reformation groups and sought to create a free believers’ church patterned after the New Testament churches.”[23]Anabaptists, Lutherans, and Mennonites “considered the Lord’s Prayer, the Apostles Creed, and the ten commandments to express and represent the essence of the Christian faith.”[24] Anabaptists, even “used them as a prerequisite and a preparation for baptism.”[25] “Discipleship is integral to the Annabaptist-Mennonite understanding of faith, as exemplified in a quote from the Anabaptist Hans Denck (1526): “The medium is Christ whom no one can truly know unless he follows him in his life, and no one may follow him unless he has first known him.” Mennonite historians and theologians have identified discipleship as on of the most important legacies of the Anabaptist movement.”[26] Though the different denominations were appearing, they still shared many of the same discipleship techniques.
In the 1720’s, 30’s, and40’s a series of revivals swept through the American colonies led by Theodore Frelinghuysen, Jonathan Edwards, and George Whitefield. This “Great Awakening” gained mixed support from the colonial churches. Lack of discipleship was certainly, an issue as thousands of people became Christians, but there was not a great effort to disciple them. “When Whitefield saw hundreds or thousands at a time melted by his eloquence, he called it a “gracious melting,” thanked God for the display of his power, hoped they would prove true converts, and hurried away to preach the gospel to another thousand.”[27] More revivals would occur in
What we have come to know as Sunday school was originally started in
American churches today practice many different methods of Discipleship. Very few city or towns are based around a certain church, communal living is not typical of most Christian churches, and they do not face criminal charges for having unpopular religious views. Nonetheless, there is a completely new set of discipleship issues the church must address today.
Many Protestant churches in the 1900’s started operating under a Sunday school based discipleship program. They have Sunday school bible study in the morning, followed by congregational singing and preaching. Then, they have either a prayer meeting, discipleship class, or another sermon on Sunday and Wednesday nights. This method is still the most popular, but it alone does not seem to be producing consistent spiritual growth.
Many twentysomethings are reversing course after having been active church attenders during their teenage years. As teenagers, more than half attended church each week and more than 4 out of 5 (81%) had ever gone to a Christian church. That means that from high school graduation to age 25 there is a 42% drop in weekly church attendance and a 58% decline from age 18 to age 29. That represents about 8,000,000 twentysomethings alive today who were active church-goers as teenagers but who will no longer be active in a church by their 30th birthday.[29]
A popular discipleship model for churches today is that of Rick Warren’s,
Another trend in recent years is the growth of house churches; also known as “simple church.” House churches adopt the small group model, but leave out the large congressional body of believers. George Barna named simple church “as one of several "mini-movements" vacuuming up millions of believers (who) have stopped going to (standard) church. In two decades, he wrote, "only about one-third of the population" will rely on conventional congregations.”[31] The house members, “and seven other twenty- and thirtysomethings mix a fairly formal weekly communion with a laid-back laying on of hands, semiconfessional "sharing" and a guitar sing-along.”[32] This certainly promotes intimacy within discipleship, but it does not guarantee accuracy within its teachings. “That is why training is so important, because training involves the formation of the self through submission to authority that will provide people with the virtues necessary to make reasoned judgment.”[33] A church without a qualified overseer is dangerous and unbiblical.
Another popular discipleship method is also very evangelistic in nature. The Disciplemaking process claims that if every new believer converts and disciples three people a year, then there would be over one million converts in 10 years.[34] This plan encourages Christians to accept more knowledge, responsibility, and commitment by participating in the discipleship process. However, it fails to mention that if one truly does this, then they will have twelve disciples within four years. This would certainly lead to neglectful discipleship. However, O.J. Bryson’s “Team 7” strategy avoids this pitfall by simply placing a limit of seven people for each person to disciple.[35]
Two practices of discipleship gaining popularity these days are regenerate church membership and church discipline.[36] These practices were neglected in the twentieth century, but many churches are rediscovering the positive role that they can play in the discipleship process.[37] Regardless of which discipleship strategy gains dominance, Christians are called to "Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."[38]
Works Cited
The Barna Group, Ltd., 1957 Eastman Ave. Ste B,
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, Geffrey B. Kelly, and John D. Godsey. Discipleship.
Bryson, O. J. Networking the Kingdom: A Practical Strategy for
Coleman, Robert Emerson. The Master Plan of Evangelism.
Collins, Steven. Christian Discipleship ; Foundations for Maximum Spiritual Growth.
Dever, Mark. Nine Marks of a Healthy Church.
González, Justo L. The Story of Christianity.
Gros, Jeffrey, Thomas F. Best, and Lorelei F. Fuchs. Growth in Agreement III: International Dialogue Texts and Agreed Statements, 1998-2005. Faith and order paper, no. 204.
Harnack, Adolf von, E. E. Kellett, and F. H. Marseille. Monasticism: Its Ideals and History, and The Confessions of
Harris, Joshua. Stop Dating the Church! Sisters, Or: Multnomah Publishers, 2004.
[1] Hauerwas, Stanley. "Discipleship As a Craft, Church As a Disciplined Community. Learning What Is True and Good Is Like Learning a Craft, According to
Olson, Roger E. The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform.
Rainer, Thom S. Breakout Churches: Discover How to Make the Leap.
Reese, William L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.
Sheldrake, Philip. A Brief History of Spirituality.
Smith, William, F. N. Peloubet, and M. A. T. Peloubet. Bible Dictionary. Nelson's Quick reference.
The Holy Bible, In Four Translations: King James Version, New American Standard Bible, the New English Bible, the
Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening.
Van Beima, David. "There's No Pulpit Like Home." Time. 167.10 (March 6 2006): 46-8
Warren, Richard. The Purpose Driven Church: Growth Without Compromising Your Message & Mission.
The shifting focus of discipileship within church history
A Term Paper
Presented to
Assoc. Professor Pete Schemm
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
THE3130A Christian Theology III
Scott Randolph
The College at Southeastern
11-05-08
[1] Sheldrake, Philip. A Brief History of Spirituality.
[2] Smith, William, F. N. Peloubet, and M. A. T. Peloubet. Bible Dictionary. Nelson's Quick reference.
[3] Mark 1:16-20
[4] he Holy Bible, In Four Translations: King James Version, New American Standard Bible, the New English Bible, the
[5] Ibid. , Luke 6:13-16
[6] Ibid. , Matt 10:1-23
[7] Ibid. , Matthew 28:19-20 NKJV
[8] Ibid. , Acts 6:1-7
[9]
[10] Olson, Roger E. The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform.
[11]
[12] Ibid. , 120
[13] Harnack, Adolf von, E. E. Kellett, and F. H. Marseille. Monasticism: Its Ideals and History, and The Confessions of
[14] Reese, William L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.
[15] Ibid. , 365
[16]
[17] Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, Geffrey B. Kelly, and John D. Godsey. Discipleship.
[18] Reese, William L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.
[19]
[20]
[21] Ibid. , 277
[22]
[23] Ibid. , 277
[24] Gros, Jeffrey, Thomas F. Best, and Lorelei F. Fuchs. Growth in Agreement III: International Dialogue Texts and Agreed Statements, 1998-2005. Faith and order paper, no. 204.
[25] Ibid. , 224
[26] Ibid. , 230
[27] Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening.
[28]
[29]The Barna Group, Ltd., 1957 Eastman Ave. Ste B,
[30] Warren, Richard. The Purpose Driven Church: Growth Without Compromising Your Message & Mission.
[31] Van Beima, David. "There's No Pulpit Like Home." Time. 167.10 (March 6 2006): 46-8
[32] Ibid.
[33] Hauerwas, Stanley. "Discipleship As a Craft, Church As a Disciplined Community. Learning What Is True and Good Is Like Learning a Craft, According to
[34] Collins, Steven. Christian Discipleship ; Foundations for Maximum Spiritual Growth.
[35] Bryson, O. J. Networking the Kingdom: A Practical Strategy for
[36] Harris, Joshua. Stop Dating the Church! Sisters, Or: Multnomah Publishers, 2004.
[37] Dever, Mark. Nine Marks of a Healthy Church.
[38] Matthew 28:19-20
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